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BackTable / OBGYN / Article
Endometrial Ablation: Past, Present & Future
Faith Taylor • Updated Jul 31, 2025 • 33 hits
Endometrial ablation has undergone a significant transformation over the past century, evolving from steam techniques to precise, minimally invasive tools used today. As physicians gain more insight into the regenerative biology of the endometrium and the nuances of patient selection, modern ablation techniques are increasingly tailored to minimize complications while expanding applicability.
In this article, Dr. Ted Anderson shares the historical origins and recent advancements in endometrial ablation techniques as well as promising new technologies with future implications for fertility and adenomyosis management.
This article features excerpts from the BackTable OBGYN Podcast. We’ve provided the highlight reel in this article, but you can listen to the full podcast below.
The BackTable OBGYN Brief
• Historical ablation methods such as steam instillation and the use of herbal poultices were developed in response to the high mortality of hysterectomy. They offered a non-surgical option for managing abnormal uterine bleeding.
• The rollerball method, enabled by electrosurgical advancements, allowed for precise endometrial ablation but required a high degree of operator skill, resulting in varied clinical outcomes based on practitioner experience.
• The introduction of thermal balloon ablation devices standardized treatment efficacy across experience levels and shifted emphasis toward selecting appropriate patient candidates.
• The Cerene cryoablation system enables in-office treatment with minimal discomfort, preserves uterine cavity access, and achieves high patient satisfaction despite a lower amenorrhea rate.
• The MORA steam-based system revives early concepts with modern precision, offering comprehensive endometrial treatment while maintaining the ability for future intrauterine evaluation.
Endometrial ablation techniques are being explored for their future potential to provide fertility-sparing options in patients with adenomyosis or those who may require repeat evaluations post-treatment.
Table of Contents
(1) The Path to Precision: Historical Origins of Endometrial Ablation & Modern Techniques
(2) Novel Devices for Endometrial Ablation: Cerene & MORA
(3) The Future of Endometrial Ablation
The Path to Precision: Historical Origins of Endometrial Ablation & Modern Techniques
Endometrial ablation techniques have historically been developed in response to the high morbidity associated with hysterectomy. Early methods involved options like steam and herb poultices to manage abnormal uterine bleeding, offering an alternative for patients who could not tolerate major surgery. Over time, these methods gave way to electrosurgical tools and the development of the resectoscope, enabling more controlled tissue destruction. The introduction of the rollerball technique further advanced the field but required significant surgical expertise to achieve consistent outcomes.
The advent of global endometrial ablation devices marked a turning point in access to appropriate care by simplifying the procedure and reducing operator dependence. Tools such as thermal balloon systems demonstrated similar success rates across different skill levels, allowing the procedure to be performed more easily and safely in a wider environment. This shift allowed for a redirect in clinical focus from procedural technique to patient optimization and risk management. This shift emphasized the importance of patient characteristics over procedural technique in determining outcomes.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
As you know, abnormal uterine bleeding is really, really common. That brings this really to the forefront of a great discussion on alternatives to treat that. It is historically something that has always been a problem. When you go way, way back to biblical times, women who had abnormal bleeding were basically ostracized from society. They were forbidden to partake in a lot of religious and societal activities during menstruation or if they were having abnormal bleeding. It had a huge impact on people, and there was a great interest in figuring out how to treat that.
I was surprised when I started looking into the history of this, how many different things had been done. You have to think, why would someone do that? When you consider the alternatives, there really wasn't a lot of other alternatives. When I look back at the first recorded example of treating abnormal bleeding, it's actually from the Bible. It's from the New Testament, and there's a story about a woman who had bleeding for 12 years. It says she had suffered much under many physicians and spent a lot of money trying to treat this and to no avail.
She heard that Christ was going to be at a certain place giving some discussions or teaching, and she thought, "If I could only touch his robe, I would be healed." She did touch his robe, and the thought was, or the passage is, that he felt the energy flowing from him, and he turned, and he said, "Daughter, your faith has made you well. Go in peace and bleed no more." That's really the first recorded that I can find-- The first recorded evidence of treating abnormal bleeding. If you go to the first non-biblical treatment of that--
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Some of our colleagues might think they could do that still to this day. That's true.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
It wouldn't hurt--
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Unless his robe was made out of Surgicel or tranexamic acid or something.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Exactly.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
That's right.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
If you go to the first non-biblical examples of that, it really started around the second century AD. This was really with the Greek gynecologists. There was an example of the use of a lot of plasters that were made and astringents that were created that were inserted into the uterus in order to stop bleeding. These were largely made of herbs like dates soaked in wine and things like that. Surprisingly, they were pretty effective at stopping bleeding or reducing bleeding. That went along for quite some time until when we really started seeing what we could recognize as really efforts for ablation really started around the mid-1800s.
This was the use of vaporization or something that at that time was called atmocosis. This was actually introducing steam into the uterine cavity with a pipe and a little catheter that was put into the uterus, and steam was introduced into the uterus. We don't have a lot of technical data about how long and under what pressures or anything like that. Eventually, there was a technique devised where there was an entry and an exit for the steam so they could control a little bit better the amount of time and the pressures and things like that. That got to be somewhat refined.
The first actual presentation of this as an option came in the late 1800s in Danzig, what is now Czechoslovakia, I guess. They described a series of about 800 patients, and they had about 700 of those 800 that were either cured or greatly improved. That was over 90% cure rate. Exactly how they define cured is unclear.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
That was with steam?
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
That was just with steam. Then later, there was a technique instilling boiling water into the uterus using the same device. These sound barbaric. When you think about what is the alternative to treat abnormal bleeding, it would be hysterectomy. At that time, over 70% mortality from hysterectomy.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
This is before antibiotics.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Absolutely. The alternatives were just not very good. People were willing to do some of these, what we would consider outlandish things, in order to stop abnormal bleeding that would allow them to participate more fully in society. I think it makes a lot of sense. The first hysterectomy wasn't really performed until about 1853. That was actually the first time a patient survived a hysterectomy. There really weren't great options at the time. Still, as I said before, mortality rates were over 70%. That really didn't change until the turn of the century.
It was around 1900, 1910 or so, when Howard Kelly had really begun to do a lot of work on looking at making hysterectomy or surgery in general safer. He made the comment that when you do this atmocosis or these alternatives that were being used at the time, it created a destructive sloughing surface, and that this sloughing surface was regenerative, and that would cause the problem of not necessarily completely destroying it. As that surface regenerated, it could cause potential problems. He recognized at that time what we now know is to be the greatest problem with endometrial ablation, and that is the regeneration of the endometrium.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Interesting. It's not incomplete destruction. It's actual true regeneration.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Yes, it is. This is going back to my PhD. I remember a researcher at the University of Massachusetts. Her name was Helen Patakula, and she was working with monkeys, and she was trying to look at the whole concept of regeneration. She actually would take the uterus and she would scrub the uterus with gauze, trying to get all of the endometrium out, in hysterotomies in baboons, then she would sew the uterus back up, and then she would look. These baboons would completely regenerate the entire endometrium even though she had taken anatomical samples and shown that there was no endometrium whatsoever.
She came up with the proposal that there are these progenitor cells in the myometrial-endometrial interface, and if you don't destroy those progenitor cells, they have the ability to completely regenerate the entire endometrium. You think about it biologically, that's what you would want in a reproductive organ, that preservation. The uterus is an organ that is designed to regenerate, and it's very effective at doing that. The effectiveness of an endometrial ablation is that fine line between killing the regenerative capability without destroying the entire uterus. I don't think we ever really achieve that greatly. I think that's a problem. We have to understand what our limitation is.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
That's interesting. I always thought it was incomplete destruction, and then you had little pockets scarred in that had nowhere to go.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
That does happen. Absolutely. That's the McCausland theory, the post-ablation syndrome, where you don't get endometrium destroyed, particularly up in the cornua, and that area regenerates. That happens a lot faster than what Patakula was showing us and what Howard Kelly was saying, and that's where you get these little pockets of regenerated endometrium up in the cornua with a scarred endometrium, so there's no exit. That postablation syndrome is, of course, one of the big reasons why endometrial ablations fail and people have hysterectomy subsequently, not for abnormal bleeding but for intractable pain.
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Novel Devices for Endometrial Ablation: Cerene & MORA
Contemporary endometrial ablation devices are increasingly designed to minimize intrauterine scarring and maintain cavity accessibility. Cryoablation systems, such as Cerene, have demonstrated high patient satisfaction despite lower amenorrhea rates. This treatment modality offers the advantage of minimal discomfort during in-office procedures and a relatively quick recovery.
Similarly, the MORA system revisits the historical use of steam in a more controlled and targeted manner. Both devices are gaining attention for their potential to preserve endometrial architecture, allowing for future diagnostic evaluation or repeat interventions if symptoms persist. These technologies reflect a shift toward outcomes that prioritize symptom relief and long-term monitoring capabilities over complete amenorrhea.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
He's a very charismatic guy. They came up with the concept of the partial endometrial ablation.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
I want to hear about that, because he told me all about that.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
That was where you would just ablate, let's say, either the anterior surface or the posterior surface, but not both. What that would do is it would prevent that scarring that typically occurs with an endometrial ablation and provide an outlet for blood if there's been regeneration. That prevents that sequestration of regenerated endometrium in preventing the post-ablation syndromes.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Hemiablation, he called it.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Yes, exactly. He was a big fan of that, and he still would be a proponent of it. Now, I think he was on to something, really. When you get down to it, he, I think, was a little bit of a visionary. That's what we really saw. Then, around the turn of the century, we saw the advent of antibiotics. We saw the advent of better surgical technique. The mortality rate for hysterectomy dropped to about less than 10%, 5% to 7%, or something like that. The concept of going back to hysterectomy instead of doing endometrial ablations was a little bit more favored.
Endometrial ablation fell out of favor for a number of different years until two or three things occurred in the 1920s, when we had the advent of the era of electrosurgery. This is when Harvey Cushing and William Bovey did all their experience and learned about how to use electricity to your advantage in surgery. Then the development of the resectoscope, which wasn't until 1989, actually. This was when Karl Storz had the combination of using the Hopkins rod lens and all the digital imaging. It brought hysteroscopy into play. Then, the advent of minimally invasive surgery in gynecology, which occurred in the 1980s.
When we started having all these things coming together, we saw a resurgence in the interest of intrauterine surgery, and in that case, then the actual destruction of the endometrium by-- it first started with lasers and then application of electrocautery or electrosurgery, and full-grading the endometrium. These were really propagated early on as mechanisms for endometrial ablation, and the success rates were pretty good.
When we finally got the rollerball endometrial ablation, that is when it really became popular because it was really difficult to-- As you might guess, using a laser fiber to go in and just tediously eliminate the endometrium line by line by line, that takes forever to do that. It was very effective. When the rollerball came into play, we're basically just burning away the uterine lining. Just mowing the lawn. It's exactly what I tell patients. It's just like mowing the grass or using a miniature steam roller and just going over everything and eliminating it, but even then, unless you get down to the basalis and destroy the basalis, you're going to get some regeneration.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
When were you doing a global rollerball, or were you doing Art McCausland's just back half? This theory is that when you did both halves, you had scarring. If you just did one half, you'd have decreased bleeding, but no scarring.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
When I learned how to do it, this was before the McCauslands had really come out with their theory, and I'd never met them and so I was doing the traditional ablation as you think of it and getting the entire endometrium ablated and burning as far down as I possibly can. As you might guess, the success rate of the endometrial ablation at that time was really a function of surgical skill because you have a visual endpoint and so you would burn this down to the point until you felt like you had to completely destroy the endometrium and there was no real marker to tell you when you were there or not. You just had to know. That only came from experience.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
That was monopolar, so you were using saline. You were using glycine.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Correct, we were using glycine at the time. You had a time factor involved here as well. You couldn't dally around. You had to get to the point and get it done. It required a certain amount of skill and confidence level to operate within that cavity and feel comfortable. You might guess, not a lot of people did it or were interested in doing it. That is why we began to see the emergence of global endometrial ablation, which is so popular now. Global endometrial ablation was basically the concept of, "Let's develop some sort of tool that you can put into the urine cavity and ablate the entire endometrium at once. That's where the term global comes from.
What it was designed to do was basically take the skill requirement out of the procedure and provide an opportunity for someone who did not necessarily have the skill or the time to learn the skill to do a rollerball ablation, to be able to offer this option to patients and still get a good result. The first one that came out was the Thermachoice.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
That was the water balloon.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
The old water balloon that came out with Ethicon. That was the first one that came out, and that one was pretty good. It first came out in about 1997 was the first one and of course, the balloon was latex. That was a mistake.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Did it just melt?
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
No. People had latex allergies, and so it causes an immune sensitivity. They changed that to silicon in about 1999 or 2000. That made the balloon a little bit more pliable as well, and so it could really get into the cavity. This is when the McCausland started recognizing that post-deblation syndrome, because this was the technique that was not getting up into the cornua very well and was sparing the cornual epithelium, and that's where the regeneration was occurring. That led to the McCausland's recognition of the postablation syndrome and doing something to try to avoid that.
It did show that it worked really well, so a lot of studies came out doing some comparative studies, and we actually did one at Vanderbilt as well. We did a study where we had about 3,000 patients or so who had an endometrial ablation. Some of those had rollerball endometrial ablation, and some of them had thermal balloon endometrial ablation. Then we had broken down further into experienced people doing the ablation versus inexperienced people. The experienced people were considered those people who had had fellowship training in minimally invasive surgery, including hysteroscopy.
The inexperienced people were interns. What we found is if you were using the balloon endometrial ablation, that we had failure rate of about probably 9% or 10% and that was defined as people who end up having a hysterectomy within two years. It didn't matter whether I did the ablation or the intern did the ablation, the success rate was about the same. When we looked at the rollerball, if I did the endometrial ablation with a rollerball, the success rate or the failure rate was the same, about 10% in two years. If the intern did the rollerball, this failure rate was about 27%.
That really illustrated that number one, the rollerball endometrial ablation effectiveness was a function of experience. It also illustrated that the global endometrial ablations did exactly what they wanted to do, and that is to be able to take away that need for experience or technical skill and still be able to offer a good technique to the patient. What it also did is it shifted our onus from necessarily having the skill to do the ablation to the ability to pick the right patient. The success became more patient-dependent than it did physician-dependent. We had a lot of things that were defined as what made a good patient, or even more importantly, what did not make a good patient, or what predicted failure. This is where we began this roller coaster ride of what I called the evolution and the involution of endometrial ablations. We began seeing more and more endometrial ablation devices coming out using different energies, and the problem or the challenge was that they were using amenorrhea as their endpoint.
When you think about endometrial ablations, less than 50% of people ever who get any kind of endometrial ablation actually achieve amenorrhea. I think that's the wrong endpoint. The better endpoint is achieving eumenorrhea, or normalizing endometrial bleeding, so that it's not controlling your life anymore. If we reset that expectation to not achieving amenorrhea, truly replacing hysterectomy, but by reducing bleeding to the point that is controllable, then it becomes a good alternative. The key is trying to pick the right patient that's going to achieve a good result, but not have the complications of endometrial ablation.
The Future of Endometrial Ablation
As clinical use of newer ablation techniques expands, their implications for fertility preservation and adenomyosis management are being increasingly examined. Cryoablation, a technique typically less tissue destructive than prior alternatives, may hold promise for patients who wish to maintain reproductive potential. Observations suggest these methods could avoid the intrauterine damage associated with traditional approaches.
In the context of adenomyosis, these technologies may offer a therapeutic option that reduces bleeding without compromising future evaluations. Improvements in diagnostic imaging criteria are helping to guide more precise patient selection. The potential for these patients is significant, but in lieu of already existing data, long-term surveillance may be necessary for individuals requiring repeat procedures or who experience complications from their initial procedures.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
You mentioned, you said there's a couple of devices. Is there anything besides Cerene that you're seeing that's out there, that's on the horizon, or what other ablation
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
The two devices that are out there that seem to address this issue of the cavity access are the Cerene and the MORA, which is interestingly going back to what was used in the 1800s, it's interdicting steam into the endometrium. We find that also has a pretty high success rate in terms of cavity patency at one in three years. These are patients where if they come back with abnormal bleeding, we know we can at least evaluate the cavity.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Is that done in the ORs, the steam one?
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
It's done in the office as well. I think most of them were done in the office in the FDA trial, but you could do it either way. The Cerene, the cryoablation, I would 100% do those in the office.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Are you doing those in your practice now?
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
I am doing it. When I have those patients that are maybe a little bit higher potential for failure, I'll suggest that as a possibility, because if they do have bleeding, I'm going to be able to evaluate the cavity. You could do it again, potentially, in a few years do it again.
We haven't really looked at that. That's technically repeat ablations are not considered to be very favorable. That's really because when we do an ablation, we're altering the biophysics of the endometrium, including the circulatory system, which takes that heat away and dissipates it, and prevents a lot of damage to the uterus.
Once we've done that, we don't really know the effect that a subsequent ablation would have.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
It may be a conductor than it was before.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
It may be, yes.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Oh, interesting.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
We need to look at that. Another thing that I think an experiment of nature will tell us, and that is looking at people who get pregnant after endometrial ablations. I'm just waiting for people who have had these cryoablations that don't really completely destroy the endometrium, are they going to be able to have successful pregnancies after? Would this be a treatment for people who have, for example, adenomyosis and other problems with bleeding, but don't want to forego their fertility?
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Oh, I hadn't thought about adeno with the Cerene. If it freezes deep enough, it's one of the most challenging things for me to think about treating. Taking the uterus out is one thing, but treating the glandular disease within the myometrium, it's pretty inaccessible for most of us. Occasionally you get, Keith Isaacson telling you he can dig and find these things, but for most of us-
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Maybe Keith can.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
That's what I'm saying, it's a bit of a challenge for me.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
As we're mortals.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
That's right.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
For the rest of us, though, it's a pretty challenging disease to discuss, and more importantly to specifically treat while maintaining fertility, and so that'd be very interesting.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
There really aren't any treatments that are designed to adequately treat adenomyosis that are fertility-sparing. There's birth control pills, Mirena IUD, hysterectomy, maybe ablation. There's some evidence that endometrial ablation failure is higher with people who have extensive endometrial adenomyosis.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
I would think so.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
How do you define that?
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Pathologically, later on.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
It's too late. It's only been recently that we have criteria for ultrasound to describe the extent of adenomyosis and be able to identify it. Now we're beginning to look at that a little bit more carefully and prospectively, how are these patients doing if we look at their adenomyosis? We did a study here. Howard Curlin and I did this study a few years ago where we looked at patients who had endometrial ablation failure, meaning a hysterectomy.
Then we looked back at their ultrasounds to determine how many of these patients, is there a comment on their ultrasound suggesting that they had adenomyosis? Then we looked at the pathology report to see, did they really have adenomyosis? What we found is about 50-50. It really didn't seem to be weighted one way or the other. Of course, that's not a very well-controlled study, and it was just sort of anecdotal. We miss all those people who had adenomyosis, and did fine with endometrial ablation. We really don't know the answer to that question. It's going to be a difficult study to do.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
That was Keith's theory too that, a lot of our patients that have dysmenorrhea, they go in there and laparoscopy and they got a couple of spots and you're going, "This ain't it." There's likely almost certainly an adeno component to it, because it's all central, and hysterectomy cures it. Why would that matter if it was an extra uterine issue like endo?
Clearly, there's a continuum of disease with all of it, and adeno is a much bigger problem than we-- I think we're starting to recognize it now, but much more so than I think when I was trained.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Yes, we used to think of adenomyosis as being something after people had two or three children, and it had something to do with the reaction of the endometrium in the placenta and everything. Now we're seeing it in younger people who've never been pregnant. I think our ability to recognize it, and our mental ability to acknowledge it has become much better.
We're seeing a lot more adenomyosis than we used to, and hopefully, we'll be able to get some good treatments for that preserve fertility. I'm just wondering in the back of my mind, where my warp mind sort of goes sometimes is, clearly this is not something you would intentionally do in someone who's trying to get pregnant is ablate the endometrium. But I'm thinking with some of these more gentle methods of endometrial ablation that sort of preserve that uterine lining and uterine architecture, would a successful pregnancy be an option in those people?
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
I think about uterine fibroid ablation, like with Sonata and the others, like why do we think that's more destructive than a myomectomy to the uterus? I get that endometrial or rather uterine fibroid embolization, you're just dropping bees. You're causing ischemia and necrosis to more areas than just the fibroid itself. But if we're going to be pretty specific about where we ablate a fibroid, and the myometrium in theory around it is still intact and healthy, myomectomies are not atraumatic to the uterine muscle, uterine architecture.
That's one of those, like you said, you don't tell them to do it, but it will happen. I'll be very curious to see what those, and I've seen early data on those post Sonata pregnancies. With a Cerene, again, it just takes some time, but very curious to see what that looks like down the road.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
The same thing with repeat ablations, is it something that would be safe to do with that? Even using something like a Mirena after a Cerene ablation?
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]:
Yes, because that's been studied after endometrial ablation. It sounds like there's some data to suggest that the cavity is a little more patent and accessible after IUD placement. I don't know if you're seeing that.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Exactly. Yes, that's a thought. People often will put an IUD in, whether it's progestin secreting or not, after something like extensive myomectomy, or intrauterine surgery to help preserve the integrity of the cavity, just having something physically keeping the sides apart. We don't know, for example, and there have been some evidence to show that progesterone treatment after endometrial ablation improves its effectiveness also.
Could a Mirena do that? We don't know what the pharmacological dynamics are of a progesterone absorption after Mirena would be after an ablation. We have no idea whether it would work the same way. There's a lot of open questions there.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]:
Lots still left to learn, but we learned a lot today. I appreciate you coming on the show. Any more last wise words of endometrial ablation wisdom for our listeners?
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
I guess the bottom line is, it is a great technique for the right person, and there are many right persons, and there are many right motives for doing endometrial ablation. Always think of the alternatives. Always try to think of the downstream consequences of what you do, whether it's ablation or any procedure you're doing for a patient. Think of what are the downstream consequences, and tell people to think of your interventions like playing pool. You need to make a good shot, but you need to leave yourself set up for the next shot as well.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
More importantly, if you can't do that other option, don't just keep your patient to yourself, because you're not able to do the other options. That's something that I always say, "I don't do this, I don't have assessor where I work before I had Sonata, and these are the options, whether I can do them or not. Just because you don't have access to them, or you don't have the skillset to do something, it's our responsibility to make sure patients understand what all the options are, not just the options that we offer.
[Dr. Ted Anderson]
Sure, and help them access them if they need to.
[Dr. Mark Hoffman]
Yes, absolutely. Here's the guys doing it, here's the doctors that are out there that have these abilities or access to these devices.
Podcast Contributors
Cite This Podcast
BackTable, LLC (Producer). (2025, March 25). Ep. 80 – Endometrial Ablation: Past, Present & Future [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from https://www.backtable.com
Disclaimer: The Materials available on BackTable.com are for informational and educational purposes only and are not a substitute for the professional judgment of a healthcare professional in diagnosing and treating patients. The opinions expressed by participants of the BackTable Podcast belong solely to the participants, and do not necessarily reflect the views of BackTable.
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